An arc of ancient Kashmir; Guryul Ravine, Burzahom
“Who knows whence this creation had its origin?
He, whether He fashioned it or whether He did not,
He, who surveys it all from the highest heaven,
He knows—or maybe even He does not know.” — Rig Veda, X.129 1
The Vedic Seers pondered over the universe’s beginnings long back, today’s scientists and philosophers grapple with similar questions, often arriving at the boundaries of understanding. Ancient Rishis, suggest that quest for knowledge to know unknown is as important as seeking the answers. The Nasadiya Sukta, which is part of the Rig Veda, contains seven hymns. It is found in the 10th Mandala (Book) of the Rig Veda, specifically in hymn number 129. These seven hymns collectively explore profound existential and cosmological questions about the origins of the universe and the limits of human knowledge.
Vedanta, often refer to the universe as Brahmanda (macrocosm) and man as Kshudra-Brahmanda (little egg of Brahma), suggesting the same Gunas or forces govern both. The Hiranyagarbha Sukta (Rig Veda 10.121) is another profound Vedic hymn detailing the creation of the universe from a Golden Womb or Cosmic Egg (Hiranyagarbha), existing before creation. The Hiranyagarbha Sukta exalts the creator, attributing the creation of life, of all creatures to it. The Hiranyagarbha story reinforces a scientific belief. The formation of the universe is explained by the Big Bang Theory. The theory states that the universe began as just a single point. Tiny particles combined together to form atoms. Atoms merged together causing reactions, forming stars and galaxies and planets conducive to life.
According to modern science, the universe came into existence 13.8 billion years ago with the “Big Bang” (Big Bang theory is the leading explanation for the origin of the universe) and within 2 to 3 minutes of time large volume of Hydrogen, small volumes of Helium and Lithium also originated. Hydrogen is a constituent of the sun, the centre of our solar system, and Hydrogen is also equally found in the central strands of DNA which fact suggests that “Man is a Microcosm of the Macrocosm”, an ancient philosophical and metaphysical concept stating that the human being (microcosm) reflects the structure, principles, and consciousness of the entire universe (macrocosm).
An archaeological dig in the trenches of Dhaba in central India’s upper Son River valley has uncovered traces of human occupancy dating back over 80,000 years. Between 80,000 and 65,000 years ago, an international team of researchers discovered evidence of ongoing human habitation in this region. The earliest human fossils found in India date back to the Paleolithic era, around 2.5 million years ago. These fossils were discovered in the Narmada Valley in Gujarat and the Siwalik Hills in Punjab.
In the historical context, the Neolithic age began in 9000BC. The only known Neolithic settlement in the Indian subcontinent, attributed to 7000 BC, is in Mehrgarh, which is situated in Baluchistan, a province of Pakistan. Mehrgarh is located on the bank of the Bolan River in the Kochi plain which is called the ‘bread basket’ of Baluchistan.
The prehistoric antecedents of Homo sapiens in India are also some seventy-five thousand years old, their existence substantiated by the discovery of remains in northern India. Vestiges of the ice ages (from the second ice age to the fourth) have been detected in the form of large flakes which have been found embedded in boulder gravels in parts of north-western Punjab, the Siwalik foothills, Poonch, and Jammu.
“The radiocarbon evidence suggests movement and development of the Neolithic Culture in the Kashmir valley. It seems that central Asian Neolithic tradition entered the Kashmir valley in the second half of the fourth millennium BC when the Neolithic Settlers occupied the western part of the valley around Kanishkapura and then moved towards central Kashmir as the dates from Burzahom indicate the occupation around 2881 BC onwards. The Neolithic settlements occupied further south-eastern part of Kashmir in about 2347 BC onwards around Gufkral. It was during this phase when chalcolithic contacts might have developed between the Neolithic settlements of Kashmir in North and Harappan civilization in the Punjab-Haryana region in South which is indicated by the co-existing Harappan settlement at Manda (Akhnur) in Jammu on the right bank of the Chenab and Malpur, a Neolithic site partly excavated during 1994–96, located very close to the former, but on the left bank of the Chenab.”
(Extract from a research paper on Kanishkpura by Archaeological Survey of India, 1998-99)
Kashmiri Neolithic culture was distinguished by its dwelling pits, wide range of ceramics, the variety of stone and bone tools, and the complete absence of microliths. Its most important site is Burzahom, which means ‘the place of birch’, situated 16 km north-west of Srinagar. The Neolithic people lived there on a lake-side in pits, and probably had a hunting and fishing economy, and seem to have been acquainted with agriculture. The people of Gufkral (literally the ‘cave of the potter’), a Neolithic site, 41 km south-west of Srinagar, practiced both agriculture and animal husbandry. The Neolithic people in Kashmir used not only polished tools of stone, but also numerous tools and weapons made of bone.
Chronologically, there are several series of Chalcolithic settlements in India. Some are pre-Harappan, others are contemporaneous with the Harappan culture, and yet others are post-Harappan. Up to 5000 BC, the people did not make pots but after 4500 BC, the potter’s wheel was known. Pots rapidly multiplied and they began to be painted. In the dried basin of Hakra, a tributary of the Indus, forty-seven Later Neolithic settlements have been found. Evidently, they paved the way for the rise of the Harappan culture. The urban culture of the Bronze Age found in Harappa was a path-breaking discovery.
Long before the Egyptian or Sumerian cultures, there flourished Indus Valley Civilization in India. Swami Sankarananda, the author of ‘Rig Vedic Culture of the Pre-Historic Indus’ (Vol.1. Chap.1, P 50) writes; “Those people went with the script and culture as well as the language from the Indus Valley. These colonists spread the Indus Civilization to the Mediterranean shores and eventually became the fathers of the civilization of Greece and Rome.”
India's history and culture is dynamic, spanning back to the beginning of human civilization. Long before the Egyptian or Sumerian cultures, there flourished Indus Valley Civilization in India. The culture of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa was post-Vaidika. The Indus valley civilization was basically an urban civilization and the people lived in well-planned and well-built towns, which were also the centres for trade. The builders of the great cities Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were masters of water management as the systems of urban water supply and sewerage. The ruins of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa show that these were magnificent merchant cities-well planned, scientifically laid, and well looked after. These had wide roads and a well-developed drainage system. The houses were made of baked bricks and had two or more storeys. The highly civilized Harappans knew the art of growing cereals, and wheat and barley constituted their staple food. They consumed vegetables and fruits and ate mutton, pork and eggs as well. Evidences also show that they wore cotton as well as woollen garments.
“The Indus Civilisation was essentially a Vedic Civilisation . . . That since in India there was a continuity of Kingship from Manu onwards to Candragupta there could have been no ‘Aryan’ invasion or migration, at least unknown to the closest neighbours, the Persians. Since the majority of the people of this part of the world belonged to the eastern branch of the Mediterranean race from about the 9th or 10th millennium BC, the people of the Indus cities also belonged to the same race, as also the Vedic Indians and, consequently, there can be no question of ‘pre- Aryan’ or ‘non-Aryan’ orientation of this civilisation. The Indus people belonged to one of the Vedic tribes or ‘Janas’ and were essentially Indian with Vedic culture. In the circumstances, there could have been no invasion ‘Aryans’ or ‘Indo- Europeans’ into India as professed by occidental orientalists. Hence the Indic Civilisation was Rig-Vedic Civilisation.” Source: A.N. Chandra, The Rig-Vedic Culture and the Indus Civilisation, Calcutta: Ratna Prakashan, 1980, p. 218.
The urban culture of the Bronze Age found in Harappa, now in Pakistani Punjab was a path-breaking discovery. In 1853, A. Cunningham, the British engineer who became a great excavator, noticed a Harappan seal. Though the seal showed a bull and six written letters, he did not realize its significance. Much later, in 1921, the site of Harappa was appreciated when an Indian archaeologist, Sh. Daya Ram Sahni, started excavating it. At about the same time, Sh. R.D. Banerjee, a historian, excavated the site of Mohenjo-Daro in Sindh. Both discovered pottery and other antiquities indicative of a developed civilization. Large-scale excavations were carried out at Mohenjo-Daro under the supervision of Marshall in 1931. Mackay excavated the same site in 1938. Vats excavated at Harappa in 1940. In 1946 Mortimer Wheeler excavated Harappa, brought to light important antiquities of the Harappan culture at various sites where bronze was used. In the post-Independence period, archaeologists from both India and Pakistan excavated the Harappan and connected sites. S/Shri Suraj Bhan, M.K. Dhavalikar, J.P. Joshi, B.B. Lal, S.R. Rao, B.K. Thapar, R.S. Bisht, and others worked in Gujarat, Haryana, and Rajasthan.
In Pakistan, Kot Dijo in the central Indus Valley was excavated by F.A. Khan, and great attention was paid to the Hakra and pre-Hakra cultures by M.R. Mughal. A.H. Dani excavated the Gandhara graves in the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan. American, British, French, and Italian archaeologists also worked at several sites including Harappa.
Rakhigarhi, Hissar district, in Haryana, has emerged as bigger in size than even the Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa sites in Pakistan and Dholavira in India's Gujarat with dimensions of 200, 150 and100 hectares. Dr. Shinde, a specialist in Harappan civilization and Director of the current excavation at Rakhigarhi, said: “Our discovery makes Rakhigarhi the biggest Harappan site, bigger than Mohenjo- Daro. The two new mounds show that the Rakhigarhi site was quite extensive. They have the same material as the main site. So, they are part of the main site. On the surface of mound nine, we noticed some burnt clay clots and circular furnaces, indicating this was the industrial area of the Harappan site of Rakhigarhi.” Dr. Shinde further said: “It was earlier thought that the origin of the early Harappan phase took place in Sind, in present-day Pakistan, because many sites had not been discovered then. In the last ten years, we have discovered many sites in this part [Haryana] and there are at least five Harappan sites such as Kunal, Bhirrana, Farmana, Girawad and Mitathal, which are producing early dates and where the early Harappan phase could go back to 5000 BC. We want to confirm it. Rakhigarhi is an ideal candidate to believe that the beginning of the Harappan civilization took place in the Ghaggar basin in Haryana and it gradually grew from here. If we get the confirmation, it will be interesting because the origin would have taken place in the Ghaggar basin in India and slowly moved to the Indus valley. That is one of the important aims of our current excavation at Rakhigarhi.”
In early sixties, Dr. Waddel wrote a book on the Mohenjodaro and Harappa, culture discovered at cities; “that these were post Vedic date and that the seal and other objects of interest were completely Aryan in character and that the language impressed on the seals was Sanskrit” Aryatarangini, P13. The culture of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa was post-Vaidika or Sanatana Dharma. There is a description of what Sanatana Dharma is in the Brahmanda Purana (II.33.37)
Recently, Indus seals have been reportedly deciphered by Dr. Rajaram and Dr. Jha and according to them; “the Harappan civilization, of which the seals are product, belong to later part of the Vedic Age. It had close connections with Vedantic works like Sutras and the Upanishads. The style of writing reflects the short aphorisms found in Sutra works. The imagery and symbolism are strongly Vedic. The vocabulary depends heavily on the Vedic glossary Nighantu and its commentary by Yaska known as the Nirukta. The name of Yaska is found on at least two seals, possibly three. There are references to Vedic kings and Sages as well as place names. Of particular interest are references to Plakshagra, the birth place of Saraswati River, and Sapta Apah or the land of the Seven Rivers.”
B.B. Lal, the most prominent Indian archaeologist of the Indus Valley culture, argues that other artifacts and fire sites of the Indus Valley complex appear to be designed for rituals associated with the Vedic ritual tradition, which is usually dated many centuries later.
Dr. Wheeler says; “the Harappans worshipped Mother Goddess, Shiva and the Linga.” He further says; “it is now certain that the remnants of the big building 52 feet long, 40 feet wide and with walls 4 ft. thick are the remains of a temple. Many of the idols and the linga were discovered from this spot. He has no doubt that the Harappans were Hindus, and that temple worship had a place then.”
5000-year-old Shivling Harappa, 4000-year-old statue of Vishnu. Vietnam
Dr. Subash Kak adds; “There is evidence of temple structures in the Harappan period in addition to iconography that recalls the goddess. Structures dating to 2000 BC, built in the design of Yantras, have been unearthed in northern Afghanistan. There is ample evidence for continuity in the religious and artistic tradition of India from the Harappan times. The constructions of the Harappan period (2600-1900 BC) appear to be according to the Vedic principles. The dynamic ratio of 1:2:4 is the most commonly encountered size of rooms of houses, in the overall plan of houses and the construction of large public buildings. This ratio is also reflected in the overall plan of the large walled sector at Mohenjo-Daro called the citadel mound. It is even the most commonly encountered brick size.”
According to the Sthapatya Veda (the Indian tradition of architecture), the temple and the town should mirror the cosmos. The temple architecture and the city plan are, therefore, related in their conception. In the basic Vedic scheme, the circle represents the earth and the square represents the heavens or the deity. Volwahsen (2001) has remarked on the continuity in the Indian architectural tradition. “The Harappan cities have a grid plan, just as is recommended in the Vedic manuals. The square shape represents the heavens, with the four directions representing the cardinal directions as well as the two solstices and the equinoxes of the sun’s orbit.”
Diana Eck puts it in her ground breaking study of Hindu iconography,Darsan: Seeing the Divine Image in India; “Long before people wrote textual treatises, they wrote in images…One must learn to read these visual texts with the same insight and interpretive skill that is brought to the reading and interpretation of scriptures, commentaries, and theologies.” (Eck, 1998: 12-13)
B.B. Lal was the first in the Indian sub-continent to view the archaeological data against the background of Puranic and Epics literature and opinioned that a large number of sites associated with the Mahabharata contain the same ceramic industry, i.e., the Painted Grey Ware in their lower level (Lal 55, AI, 10)
The excavation at Hastinapura, named after King Hastin of the Puranic dynasty confirmed the stratigraphy of the Painted Grey Ware in the upper Ganga basin. He proposed a time bracket of 1100-800B.C. for PGW and associated these settlers with the early stock of Aryan in India. The Archaeological Survey of India further excavated Ram Janmabhumi in 2002-2003. To mention in the words of excavators, “the site (Trench AYD-1G7) has also proved to be significant for taking back its antiquarian remains for the first time to 1300BC.”
North Indian temples were worshiped from earliest times till today, other earliest instances of Indian temples of which are the rock-cut and cave temples of Southern and Western India, dating to the 3rd and the 2nd centuries B.C. which provide some of the first known images of Hindu iconography.
Hinduism has evolved as a part of the Sanskrit culture of ancient India. Having evolved from its beginnings in the Vedic civilization, it has evolved through centuries of the history of India. The people of India are the descendants of the Aryan people who lived in India from time immemorial. The earliest form of Hinduism was essentially nature worship. The Hindu spiritual system has evolved Vedic substratum, and its theological postulates, philosophy and legends which are a part of the Sanatana Dharma. There is no sectarianism, no fake mysticism, and no pagan obscure rites in Sanatana Dharma. The rituals observed by the Hindus of India are Vedic in principle. The form of worship, the Puja-Padhati, is also Vedic in its structure. Hindus meditating every morning, or doing his Puja, chanting Bhajans, practicing his Asanas, or doing Pranayama, does not feel he is doing anything out of the ordinary. He has inherited it and firmly believes Pranayama, Indian science of breathing, is the physical conduit to the Divine.
“The earliest forms of Hinduism arose from prehistoric faiths. The true beginnings of the faith began around 4000 B.C with the combined practices of several tribal religions, which make it the oldest still-practiced religion in the world.” [Source: Jonathan H. Kantor, Listverse, July 31, 2016]
The word Hindu occurs in Rig Veda as the second part of word VIBHINDU in Rig Veda (VIII.2.41) by Rishi Medhatithi, in RV (1,103, 30) by Rishi Angiras and in Rig Veda (1.116,20) by Rishi Kakshivan. The word VIBHINDU has been used by three different Rig Veda Rishis. In other words, Hindu word was used during Vedic times. Secondly, Ashoka’s inscriptions on stone during 3rd century BC used word HIDA in Prakrit more than 70 times for Hindus, The Hebrew Bible 300 BC used word HODU for India which is Judaic form of Hindu.
Labi-bin-e- Akhtab bin-e-Turfa, 170 BC writes in his poem in Sair-ul-Okul, a collection of poetries of Arabia, HIND for India and HINDUS for Indians.
Similarly, Omar-bin-Hassan, an uncle of Prophet Mohammed, writes in his poem, again from same collection poetries, in praise of Lord Shiva uses word HIND for India and HINDUS for Indians.
SAYUR-UL-OKUL is a poem by Umar-Bine-Hassnam
(Poetic Title: ABBUL-HIQAM meaning Father of Knowledge):
Qafa Vinak Ziqra Min Ulumin Tav Aseru
Kaluban Ayattul Hawa Va Tazakkaru
A man who has spent all his life in sin and immortality and has wasted away his life in passion and fury,
Va Tazakeroha Audan Elalvadae Lilvara Valuk
Yane Zatulla He Yom Tab Aseru
If he repents in the end and wants to return to morality, is there a way for his redemption?
Va Ahlolaha Azahu Armiman Mahadev
O Manazel Ilamuddine Minjum Va Sayattaru
Even if only once he sincerely worships Mahadev, he can attain the highest position in the path of righteousness.
Va Sahabi Keylam Feem Qamil Hinde Yoman
Va Yaquloon Latahazan Fainnak Tavajjaru
Oh Lord! Take away all my life and in return pray grant me even a single day’s stay in Hind (India) as a man becomes spiritually free on reaching that holy land.
Mayassayare Akhalaqan Hasnan Kullahum
Najumum Azaat Summ Gabul Hindu
By dint of a pilgrimage of Hind a man attains the merit of noble deeds and gets the privilege of pious touch with ideal Hindu teachers.
Brihaspatya Agama composed during 1st.Century AD to 5th. Century AD narrates; “Starting from Himalayas extending up to Indian Ocean is the nation build by Gods, Hindustan. Meru Tantra of Shiva Agama uses word HINDU and described; those who renounced ignorance and inferiority.
Chinese travellers Fa-Heian, 5th century AD and Hien-Tsang 7th century AD used YINTU for Hindus.
According to some scholars, the word India is said to have derived from Indus, which is the Romanized form of the Greek “Indos”. The Greek equivalent, however, comes from “Hindu” which is the Persianized word for Sindhu, the great river in whose banks the Vedic civilization originated and flourished.
In ancient history, the Greeks, then the Persians, used the word Hindu to refer to the land and people beyond the Indus (or Sindhu) River. The word Hindu was used by Greek authors, beginning with Herodotus in the 6th century.
Finally, using the word Hinduism to refer to a religion became popular only in the 19th century, first by the British and then by Hindus themselves to identify themselves as different from Muslims and others. In 1816, Rammohan Roy, a Hindu reformer, used the word ‘Hindooism’.
Civilization is a social phenomenon. The Sanskrit civilization constitutes the great heritage of our country. It flourished in different regions, mainly on the banks of the rivers, by socio-religious and cultural bonds till today. It was on the banks of the lost sacred river Saraswati, that the Vedic Rishis perceived the hymns of the Vedas, in Sanskrit. Almost all ancient scriptures of Vedic India were written in Sanskrit only. These written records are the kernel of Hindu sacred literature. Vedic culture spread over the banks of Saraswati and other rivers became integral part of Aryan culture. In Hindu religious philosophy the prominence of Saraswati after it dried around 1900 BC, has taken over by Ganga. The waters of sacred Ganga, has purified Indian life in all ages by washing out the dirt of time.
In Rig Veda, Saraswati is praised as the mother among rivers; Ambitame, Naditame, Devitame, Saraswati. Its literal meaning is; the greatest of goddesses, the greatest of mothers, the greatest of rivers. Saraswati River has been praised in 71 Richas of Rig Veda like Rig Veda (2.41.16) and in many more.
Geological evidence has been found to suggest that the river Saraswati flowed down a north-westerly course, in northern India from Himalaya to the Rann of Kutch, in ancient times. It is believed to have dried up sometime between Vedic period and the time of Mahabharata. There is geological evidence to believe that, the withdrawal of the waters of Yamuna and Sutlej, which fed Saraswati, dried its waters. Saraswati was then the major river in Northern India, independent of the Indus river system and the Ganga river system. However, the Saraswati River went dry with the end of the Indus Valley culture during1900 BC. In fact, this may have caused the ending of the Indus culture. After Saraswati vanished it became a legend.
“The Vedic civilization of the legendry river Saraswati flourished in the close vicinity of Kashmir. There is little doubt left now about the historicity of the Saraswat people. Geological evidence has come to surface which establishes beyond doubt that the river Saraswati flowed down from the Himalayas in a north-westerly course, to Rann of Kutch. Archaeological excavation along the course of the ancient river has revealed sterling facts about the civilizational linkages between the Harappan and the Saraswat people. David Frawley, a leading US Indologist has reported, that a committee of geologists, historians, geographers and other experts appointed by Government of India, under the chairmanship of Dr. V.S. Watankar, conducted a survey of 150 archaeological sites, over a stretch of 3500 kilometers along the course of the river Saraswati. They used latest techniques such as Multi-Spectral Scanner (MSS) and land sat imagery. The Committee concluded that the river Saraswati dried up gradually between 1800 BC and 800 BC due to tectonic movements which caused change in the course of river Satluj. The Committee discredited the theory of Aryan invasion of India and rejected the sociological divide between the pre-Aryan India and the Vedic India of the Aryan origin. It refused to recognize that the Harappan and Mohenjo-Daro cultures represent the pre-Aryan, Indus Valley Civilization. The Committee concluded that the discovery of the dried channel of the river Saraswati, east of river Indus and the location of more than 260 archaeological sites which showed civilizational similarities to Harappan and Mohenjo-Daro cultures provided evidence of the historical continuity of the Sind Valley Civilization and the early Vedic civilization of India.
Evidence is also available of the close contact between the people of the Saraswati civilization and people of Kashmir. Nilmat era of the Hindu history of Kashmir followed the disappearance of the river Saraswati. Nilmat Purana narrates; ‘sixty-five rituals and festivals, were celebrated with great devotion, faith, pomp and show. Some of the rituals and festivals find mention in other Puranas also. Some of these are celebrated even today in Kashmir, like Kaw Poonim and Yaksha Mavas (Kechi Mavas). It is generally thought that the Purana talks of rituals and festivals of Nagas only, and these being adopted by Aryan Saraswat Brahmins of Kashmir, which is not so. Many of the rituals, festivals and days are common with those followed by Aryans in Bharatvarsha or emanating from Vedas.’” (Kashmir Hindu Shrines by Chaman Lal Gadoo)
“The beginnings of Hinduism can be traced from the Indus Valley civilization (3200-1600 B.C.) to the composition of the Vedas, which began around 1500 B.C. The Indus Valley culture, known to the modern world through its archaeological remains (including impressive urban structures, pottery, inscriptions, and other artifacts), represents one of the most advanced civilizations in the world from these early times.” [Source: Leona Anderson, World mark Encyclopaedia of Religious Practices, Thomson Gale, 2006]
India has been home to ancient civilizations since around 4000 BC even earlier which include the Indus Valley civilization, followed by the Vedic Age, even the Mauryan Empire, and the Gupta Empire had initially its big role in overall development of the country. All of these civilizations contributed to the advancement in science, technology, art, and culture. The earliest known major civilization in ancient India was the Indus Valley civilization that became more organized around 2600 BC. However, its development started earlier than that, with some evidence of cultural and technological developments going back to 5000 BC. But by 2600 BC the Indus Valley civilization had planned cities with complex public work projects like a sewage and drainage system. There was also development of technology like standardized systems of weights and the use of various crafts like metalworking.
The Indus Valley Civilization, flourished for nearly eight centuries was, according to some scholars’ largest ancient civilizations. It was noted for its efficient town planning with interlinked drainage system, dwelling houses built with standardized burnt bricks, tiled flooring, wheel- turned ceramics, terracotta craft, spinning and weaving, bead-making, and more importantly, copper- bronze casting by the cire-Purdue or lost-wax process. Within this civilization flourished many towns and cities including Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Chanhu-Daro, Kalibangan and Lothal, which have revealed an agriculture-based economy with granaries and other storing techniques that made for an enriched community life. While there is wide-ranging archaeological data concerning the technical skills of the people, there is little information about their other activities. This is because their script, found on nearly 3,000 seals and other inscribed objects, is yet to be deciphered. Further excavation has shown that the great majority of the sites of the Indus Valley culture were east, not west of Indus. In fact, the largest concentration of sites appears in an area of Punjab and Rajasthan near the dry banks of ancient Saraswati and Drishadvati rivers.
“The Hindu synthesis began to develop between 500–300 B.C. as various forms of Hindu study coalesced into the practices we see today. The earliest records of Hindu gods, goddesses and Hindu beliefs were first written down in about the fourth century A.D. However, by this time, there was already a strong oral tradition which supported these beliefs. The early Hindu epics and myths help us to understand the evolution of the gods and goddesses and the development of beliefs which form the basis of the modern Hindu religion.” [British Museum]
Hinduism is regarded by some scholars as the oldest surviving religion. It originated around the Indus Valley near the River Indus in modern day Pakistan. Some elements date back as far as 7,000 to 10,000 years ago. Based on study of its earliest scriptures, the history of the intellectual and religious life of the ancient Hindus is matchless in its continuity, its fullness, and its philosophical truth. The Aryans built houses, villages, and towns, made roads, and constructed boats for communication by water or for a humble kind of trade. Weaving, spinning, and plaiting were known, and furs, skins, and woollen fabrics were made into garments. Carpentry must have made considerable progress, and dyeing was known. Many of the useful animals had been domesticated and brought under the service of man. The cow, the bull, the ox, the sheep, the goat, the swine, the dog, and the horse had all been domesticated.
Anthropologists have observed that the present population of Gujarat is composed of more or less the same ethnic groups as are noticed at Lothal in 2000 BC. Similarly, the present population of the Punjab is said to be ethnically the same as the population of Harappa and Rupar 4000 years ago. Linguistically the present-day population of Gujarat and Punjab belongs to the Indo-Aryan language-speaking group. The only inference that can be drawn from the anthropological and linguistic evidences adduced above is that the Harappan population in the Indus Valley and Gujarat in 2000 BC was composed of two or more groups, the more dominant among them having very close ethnic affinities with the present-day Indo-Aryan speaking population of India. In other words, there is no racial evidence of any such Indo-Aryan invasion of India but only of continuity of the same group of people who traditionally considered be Aryans.
The history of the intellectual and religious life of the ancient Hindus is matchless in its continuity, its fullness, and its philosophical truth. The Aryans built houses, villages, and towns, made roads, and constructed boats for communication by water for trade. Weaving, spinning, and plaiting were known, and furs, skins, and woollen fabrics were made into garments. Carpentry must have made considerable progress, and dyeing was known. Many of the useful animals had been domesticated and brought under the service of man. The cow, the bull, the ox, the sheep, the goat, the swine, the dog, and the horse had all been domesticated.
A well-known stamp seal from the Indus Valley, the Pashupati seal is carved in steatite and gets its name from the Sanskrit word for “lord of all animals,” referring to the Hindu deity Shiva. Mohenjo-Daro was one in a series of settlements that is collectively known as the Indus Valley Civilization. Named after the Indus River, this early civilization encompassed a vast swath of present-day Pakistan and north-western India. Mohenjo-Daro had an estimated 40,000 residents and was a well-planned settlement with efficient urban facilities that included street drainage, a sewage system, and large civic buildings. Residents also had access to well-water and many had baths in their homes. Seals numbering in the thousands has been discovered in excavations of Indus cities as well as in sites in the Persian Gulf in southwest Asia. Seals from the Gulf region have similarly been found in Indus cities. The finds suggest active trade and exchange between these areas in the third millennium BC.
Early Hindus have a rich history of remarkable advancements in science and technology. Throughout the centuries, Indian Hindu Scientists/Scholars made groundbreaking discoveries and developed inventions that contributed significantly to the world's scientific knowledge. The Vedas, Itihasas, Brahmaṇas, Araṇyakas, Upanishads, and Puranas, not only delved into philosophical and spiritual realms but also contained profound insights into mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and much more. The Atharva Veda was the first to mention diseases, cures, and medicines. The diseases mentioned are fever, cough, diarrhoea, dropsy, sores, leprosy, seizures and many more. The invention of zero, the decimal numeral system, advancements in agriculture, irrigation, astronomy, medicine, metallurgy, philosophy, as well as their discoveries by ancient Indian Hindu scientists have shaped science of modern world.
For at least two reasons the Hindu tradition contains the greatest diversity of any world tradition. First, Hinduism spans the longest stretch of time of the major world religions, with even the more conservative views setting it as well over 10,000 years old. Throughout this expanse of time, the Hindu tradition has been extremely conservative about abandoning elements that have been historically superseded. Instead, these elements have often been preserved and given new importance, resulting in historical layers of considerable diversity within the tradition. Second, Hinduism has organically absorbed hundreds of separate cultural traditions, expressed in as many as 300 languages
Hindu Spiritual System has evolved as a part of the Sanskrit culture of ancient India. Having evolved from its beginnings in the Vedic civilization, it has evolved through centuries of the history of India. The Hindu spiritual system has a Vedic substratum and its theological postulates, philosophy and legends are a part of the Sanatana Dharma. There is no sectarianism, no fake mysticism, and no pagan obscure rites in Sanatana Dharma. Sanatana literally means eternal, that which has no beginning or end. That which is timeless cannot have a beginning or end. Therefore, by definition, it is beyond the constraints of time, and that is why it is said to be the oldest living religion (Dharma) in the world. The rituals observed by the Hindus of India are Vedic in principle. The form of worship, the Puja-Padvati, is also Vedic in its structure since time immemorial.
Yoga, the ancient spiritual aspect in Sanatana Dharma is a way to Godhood. It is discipline of mind and body ultimately leading to self-realization. The word ‘Yoga’ is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘Yuj’, meaning ‘to join’ or ‘to yoke’ or ‘to unite’. Hindus meditating every morning, or doing his Puja, chanting Bhajans, practicing his Asanas, or doing Pranayama, does not feel he is doing anything out of the ordinary. He has inherited it and firmly believes Pranayama, Indian science of breathing, is the physical conduit to the Divine.
“Sanatana dharma, in Hinduism, term used to denote the “eternal” or absolute set of duties or religiously ordained practices incumbent upon all Hindus, regardless of class, caste, or sect. Different texts give different lists of the duties, but in general sanatana dharma consists of virtues such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, purity, goodwill, mercy, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, generosity, and asceticism. Sanatana dharma is contrasted with svadharma, one’s “own duty” or the particular duties enjoined upon an individual according to his or her class or caste and stage of life. The potential for conflict between the two types of dharma (e.g., between the duties of a warrior and the general injunction to practice non-injury) is addressed in Hindu texts such as the Bhagavad Gita, where it is said that in such cases svadharma must prevail.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
The culture of India is called as the Rishi culture or Vedic Culture, from ancient times. The Vedas are the foundations of Sanatana Dharma and Indian culture. The Vedas are ancient books of knowledge and deal with all branches of knowledge mainly religion, philosophy, science, astronomy, astrology, sociology, music, politics and administration. The Vedas are compared to Kalpa-Vriksha (the desire tree), because they contain all things perceivable by man. Vedas led us towards more meaningful, purposeful and useful life. Broadly speaking, Vedas are inseparable part of Hindu civilization.
Hinduism has been full of scientific thought and contributed immensely to the global civilization spanning more than five millennia. The Upavedas and Vedangas offer a profound understanding of Vedic wisdom. They bridge the gap between spiritual teachings and scientific applications, making ancient knowledge relevant in modern world. Vedangas, or "limbs of the Vedas" encompass six essential disciplines crucial for studying ancient Indian spiritual texts, the Vedas, and form the foundation of Hinduism and Yoga. They are mainly divided into six categories- Kalpa (religious practices), Siksha (pronunciation), Vyakaran (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Channdas (meter) and Jyotish (astronomy). Each Veda has its Upaveda. They are mainly divided into four categories- Ayurveda (medicine), Dhanurveda (art and war), Gandharvveda (art of music) and Shilpveda (architecture}.
Ancient Hindus had a comprehensive understanding of plants and their medicinal properties. The Rig Veda contains references to various plants used for medicinal purposes, and later texts like the Nighantu explored plant classifications and their therapeutic applications. The Panchatantra and other ancient texts included study of animals (zoology)—observations of animal behaviour and characteristics. The Sushruta Samhit contains insights into embryology, describing the development of the foetus in the womb. It includes discussions on various stages of foetal growth and the formation of organs.
Artha Shastra discussed wildlife management, wildlife resources and conservation. Artha Shastra also deals with the study of insects (entomology). It provided information on insects and their impact on agriculture. The text suggests measures for pest control and emphasises the importance of understanding insect behaviour.
Ayurveda translates to the science of longevity. Poor health is seen as an obstacle to spiritual practice, so this entire science is dedicated to preserving the human body. A detailed text called the Charaka Samhita includes anatomy, physiology, and various treatments using plants, fruits, and herbs.
Jyotish in Sanskrit means Astrology and Astronomy, one of the six Vedangas and ancillary of the four Vedas. Astrology Hindus believe that it is like a map that offers a glimpse of the future, highlighting times in which life will be rough, and when life might be smooth. Astrology was created as a way to help them understand why good or bad things were happening to them, and how to better plan for the future.
Hindu martial arts training emphasized mastery of the breath as a mechanism of focus, as well as mastery of weapons (particularly the bow and arrow). Mastery of Mantras that enabled warriors to empower their weapons is emphasized as well.
Many Hindus consider singing and dancing to be sacred arts. The epics and other Hindu stories are often depicted through music to help devotees understand the life lessons found in scripture and to enable a deep connection with the divine.
The concept of environmental conservation, in the reverence for nature in various scriptures, provides a deep ecological understanding. Practices such as water harvesting and sustainable agriculture were embedded in ancient Indians. Early Hindus developed technologies such as stone-work, agriculture, animal husbandry, pottery, metallurgy, textile manufacture, bead-making, wood-carving, cart-making, sailing, and more with science and technology. Making of garments and buttons also originated at different places.
India’s maritime knowledge is evident in Artha Shastra. It provided guidelines for shipbuilding, navigation, and trade. Early Hindus also pioneered in shipbuilding. The art of navigation has originated in the region of the Indus River (Sindh) over 6,000 years ago, with the word navigation derived from the Sanskrit word navgatih. The remains of a dockyard at Lothal in Gujarat show that trade by sea flourished in those days. Indian ships travelled in Indian Ocean and reached the shores of Africa and South East Asia.
The Indian Science and technology began at Mehrgarh (now in Pakistan) and continued throughout the country’s history. The ruins of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa suggest that a highly advanced civilization was already well developed in the Indus River Valley by 3000 BC, having grown from Neolithic Period settlements dating to before 7000 BC. This period is referred to as the era of the Indus Valley Civilization (7000 to 600 BC). Glazed potteries and bronze and copper artifacts discovered in the Indus Valley excavations indicate a highly developed metallurgy also pioneered in grid-based city layouts, covered drainage systems, and the world's first enclosed dockyard at Lothal.
Ancient Hindus were excellent city builders and town planners. Water management with excellent sanitation and drainage system with flush toilets, concealed or underground water pipelines, public baths, interior bathrooms, water canals, well paved rectangular roads, four-squares and buildings are evident in the Harappan city planning.
Harappa's town planning demonstrates that Hindus were well-versed in measurement and geometry. Excavations at Harappan sites have yielded ivory and shell rulers or linear measures. The calibrations, which are marked out in minute subdivisions with amazing accuracy, correspond closely with the hasta increments of 1 3/8 inches, which were traditionally used in South Indian ancient architecture. The dimensions of ancient bricks discovered at excavation sites correspond to the units on these rulers.
By 2000 BC, Mohenjo-Daro had brick streets, running water, and a highly developed industrial, commercial, and political system. The Indus Valley's contemporary civilizations were not as scientific as the Indus. With this, almost all of ancient India was technically and economically self-sufficient, and as a Vishwa- Guru, India was the world's leader.
Early Hindus developed different systems of agriculture, irrigation, canals and water storage systems, including artificial lakes, by 3,000 BC. Cotton was cultivated by 5,000–4,000 BC. They farmed with animal-drawn ploughs in the Indus Civilisation in 2,500 BC. The people of the Indus-Saraswati region used weights and measures.
Australian historian, Auther Basham notes; “The ancient civilization of India differs from Egypt, Mesopotania and Greece, in that its traditions have been preserved without break down to the present day.”
American mathematician A. Seindenberg writes; “Arithmetic equations from the Sulba Sutras were used in the observation of triangle by the Babylonians and the theory of contraries and of inexactitude in arithmetic methods, discovered by Hindus, inspired Pythagorean mathematics.”
French astronomer Jean-Claude Bailly observed; “the Hindu astronomic systems were much more ancient than those of Greeks or even Egyptians and the movement of stars which was calculated by the Hindus 4500 years ago, does not differ from those used today by even one minute.”
Ancient agricultural practices involved the use of various chemical processes. Artha Shastra provided guidance on soil fertility, irrigation, and the use of organic and inorganic substances for enhancing agricultural productivity. Early, Hindus grew wheat, barley, and millets and practiced plough-based agriculture as well as intercropping in some areas.
The wheel-turned pots came in a variety of shapes and sizes, and some were also glazed and painted. The produced a large number of golds, bronze, conch-shell, glazed faience, and humble terracotta bangles, which contributed to India's love of bangles even today.
Weavers used wheel-spun thread, and evidence of silk, in addition to cotton, has recently been discovered at two sites. Stone and ivory carving, carpet making, and inlaid woodwork were among the other crafts.
The ancient Indian tradition of chemistry was known as Rasa Shastra. It involved the systematic study of minerals and metals for medicinal and transmutational purposes. Ancient Indian texts describe various methods of salt production, highlighting a practical understanding of chemical processes. The Artha Shastra, of Chanakya (4th century BC), detailed techniques for extracting salt from saline water and soil. Texts such as the Rasa Ratnakara and Rasa Kamadhenu provided detailed instructions on the preparation of various chemical compounds, including alloys, acids, and medicines. The Arabs translated these as alchemy texts and spread all-over.
Indian contribution to chemistry is numerous, especially in metallurgy. The Copper Age in India started by 4000 BC, Bronze Age by 3300 BC, Iron Age in 2000 BC. Ancient Indian artisans were skilled metallurgists, and their expertise is evident in the extraction and processing of metals.
Indians made profound contributions to what we today call physics. The Vaiseṣika Sutra dated to between 6th to 2nd century BC is a work of Kanada. It had some early insights into the Newtonian laws of motion. However, it was not formalized into a formal theorem with mathematical formulas like Newton has done. Bhaskara II (1114-1185 AD) proposed the idea of gravity, recognizing that objects are attracted towards the Earth due to a force. It was an early insight to the gravitational laws, few centuries before Newton.
Later, this Classical Physics transitioned into Quantum Physics. The philosophical foundation for Quantum Physics is seen in Vedanta. The philosophy of Vedanta, quite similar to Quantum Physics, posits that the observer influences what is observed. Correspondingly, the Advaita Vedanta insists that it is our mind that creates our reality in this observable universe. Similar to Advaita Vedanta, Quantum Physics is nearing the conclusion of universal Oneness of the multiplicity apparently observed by the observer.
Ancient Indian metallurgists were skilled in creating metal alloys. Artha Shastra, mentions methods for alloying metals and describes techniques for testing the purity of metals. This knowledge was crucial for ensuring the quality of metal products. The development of alloys, such as bronze (copper and tin) and brass (copper and zinc), played a crucial role in various industries, including sculpture, coinage, and tool manufacturing. Copper was widely used in ancient India for making tools, utensils, and decorative items. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was employed to create durable and corrosion-resistant artefacts. Gold and silver were extensively used in ancient Indian art and jewellery. Metal was also used in architectural elements such as pillars and gates. The exquisite detailing on metalwork in temples and palaces reflects the craftsmanship of ancient Indian metallurgists.
The ancient Indians were skilled in glass making, and the use of glass vessels is mentioned in various texts. Additionally, dyeing techniques for textiles involved chemical processes, and the knowledge of plant-based dyes was well-established.
Ancient Indian astronomers developed precise methods for calculating the positions of celestial bodies. The Siddhanta’s, astronomical treatises, provided mathematical models for planetary motion, eclipses, and the positions of stars. The Indian calendar system, known as the Panchanga, was developed to accurately measure time, celestial events, and festivals. Panca Siddhantika of Varahamihira (505-587 BC) discussed various methods for calculating calendar dates based on planetary positions.
Ancient Indian astronomers used ecliptic coordinates, a system for locating celestial objects along the ecliptic plane. The Surya Siddhanta described the measurement of celestial longitude and latitude. the division of the celestial sphere into lunar mansions, or Nakshatras, played a significant role in Indian astronomy. These divisions were used for timekeeping, especially in the context of lunar and solar calendars.
Ancient Indian astronomers were skilled observers. They documented celestial events such as eclipses, comets, and the positions of planets, contributing to a growing body of astronomical knowledge. Such observations, recorded in the texts like Vedanga Jyotiṣa, Ramayana and Mahabharata aid in dating the events mentioned in these texts or dating the text itself, after it was supplemented with other disciplines like archaeology.
Ayurveda, the ancient Indian system of medicine, incorporated principles of chemistry in the preparation of medicines. Charaka and Sushruta, ancient medical scholars, documented the properties of various substances, including minerals and plant extracts, and their therapeutic uses. Sushruta (6th century BC) is known as the "Father of Surgery," detailed procedures for rhinoplasty (nose reconstruction) and ophthalmic surgery (cataract removal) in the Sushruta Samhita. He makes reference to 121 surgical instruments. Also, ancient Indian surgeons were well-versed in plastic surgery (repair of noses, ears and lips). Early evidence from the Indus Valley Civilization shows the use of bow drills for dental treatment.
The veterinary science the animal husbandry activities have been mentioned in a Atharva Veda. In the post Vedic literature came up Asva-Ayurveda - about horses; Hasti – Ayurveda- about elephants; Gau- Ayurveda- about cows and Shyenka- Ayurveda- about hawks. The veterinary science has been mentioned in Charaka samhita, chapter II verses 10-26. It has further been elaborated in Harita samhita. Dairying is mentioned in Gau-Ayurveda. It has been mentioned that cattle should graze freely so that they achieve a successful mating and their further breeding. Atharva Veda has a specific mention about the conservation and breeding of cattle.
There are references in the Vedic literature about Vaidyuti (electricity). It is often understood as a force with the potential for shock or spark, which can also create light. Many texts like Ramayaṇa and Mahabharata make mention of ‘Yantras’ which is understood as complex machines, often employed in warfare. Yantras are often attached to the walls of fortresses. They can strike multiple number of enemies. Sataghni is a Yantra which can kill hundred enemies at a time. Other Yantras like Ṭaṭṭalaka (turret), Kaca Grahaṇi (hair-grasper), Uṣṭrika (camel shaped catapults), Huḍa Sṛngika, Huḍaguḍa and Yantrajala too are frequently mentioned in the Itihasas. Most of these are mentioned in Vana Parva of Mahabharata in the battle of Sri Kirshna with the king of Salva.
Vimana’s of various complexity are mentioned in the Itihsasa. Often, they are described as flying vehicles, though a Vimana could also mean the tall tower of a building. The poet of Mahabharata reports the arrival of a Vimana to take Arjuna from Himalaya as follows (MBH 3.43.3-6): - “Removing the darkness from the sky and splitting the clouds, it made a thundercloud like sound. It had Asi (swords), Sakti (spears), fearsome Bhima Gada (huge clubs) and Parsa (lances) with divine power. It had Vidyuta (lightning) flashes. It had Huḍaguḍa with Cakra (wheel). It had Vayu Sphoṭa – implements that created bursts of winds. It produced sounds of Barhi (peacocks) and clouds. It had terrible and huge Nagas with glowing mouths, tall as white clouds and hard as rocks.”
